Qalam

Miniature from the manuscript Tārīkh-i Jahān-Gushā (“History of the World Conqueror”) by Ata-Malik Juvayni. Persia, c. 1290. Bibliothèque nationale de France / Wikimedia Commons

Ögedei Khan — second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. Portrait from the “Album of Yuan Emperors,” China, 13th–14th centuries / Wikimedia Commons

Coronation of Ögedei Khan at a kurultai, 1229. Miniature from the manuscript Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh, Persia, early 14th century / Wikimedia Commons

Mongols at the walls of Vladimir. Miniature from a Russian chronicle, 16th century / Wikimedia Commons

Embassy of the Franciscan Ascelin of Cremona to the Mongols. Manuscript miniature, 13th century / Wikimedia Commons

Güyük Khan at a feast. Miniature from the manuscript Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh, Persia, early 14th century / Wikimedia Commons

Möngke Khan. Miniature from the manuscript Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh by Rashid al-Din, Persia, early 14th century / Wikimedia Commons

Top — William reports to King Louis IX; bottom — William travelling with a companion. Miniature from Corpus Christi College MS 66A, England, 13th century / Wikimedia Commons

Miskin. Ariq Böke defeats Alghu. Miniature from the Mughal edition of Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh by Rashid al-Din, India, 16th century / Wikimedia Commons

Statue of Kublai Khan. Sükhbaatar Square, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia / Wikimedia Commons

Henry Yule. Kublai Khan’s fleet passing through the Indian (Indonesian) Archipelago. Illustration from The Book of Ser Marco Polo, London, 1871 / Wikimedia Commons

Mengu-Timur and Russian princes. Miniature from the Illustrated Chronicle Compilation, Russia, 1568 / Wikimedia Commons

Tolui with Sorghaghtani Beki. Miniature from the manuscript Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh, Persia, early 14th century / Wikimedia Commons

Coin of the Chaghatayid Khans, time of Qaidu. Samarqand mint, dated AH 685 (1285) / Wikimedia Commons

Seated portrait of the Hongwu Emperor (Zhu Yuanzhang), founder of the Ming dynasty. China, Ming dynasty (1368–1644), ink and color on silk. National Palace Museum, Taipei / Wikimedia Commons

Ambassadors of the Egyptian Sultan presenting gifts, including a giraffe, to Timur. Miniature from the Zafarnama by Sharaf al-Din Yazdi, 1436. Johns Hopkins University Library / Wikimedia Commons

Conquest of Baghdad by Timur. Miniature from the manuscript Zafarnama by Sharaf al-Din Yazdi, Shiraz, 1435–1436. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York / Wikimedia Commons

Unknown artist. Portrait of the Yongle Emperor (Zhu Di), third emperor of the Ming dynasty. China, Ming dynasty (1368–1644). National Palace Museum, Taipei / Wikimedia Commons

Giraffe brought from Bengal during Zheng He’s voyages. Painting by Shen Du, 15th century. Palace Museum, Beijing / Wikimedia Commons

Scenes from the life of Emperor Minghuang (Xuanzong) and Yang Guifei. Japanese folding screens inspired by the poem Song of Everlasting Sorrow, Momoyama period, late 16th–early 17th century / Getty Images

A royal barge at sea. China, Ming or Qing dynasty, 16th–17th century / Getty Images