Alexander the Great. A fragment of the mosaic. The House of the Faun in Pompeii. 1st century BC/Wikimedia Commons
Arguably one of the most famous animals to have ever appeared in historical accounts and folk traditions is a horse named Bucephalus, who once belonged to Alexander the Great, the great king and military commander
The name ‘Bucephalus’ has its roots in two Greek words and translates literally to ‘ox head’. And there are several interpretations of this name: some authors connect it to the spirited nature of the animal, while others mention a distinctive marking with a corresponding one on the horse's thigh. It's worth noting that despite the widespread depiction of Bucephalus in the works of ancient historians, these discrepancies are common in the various aspects of his life.
Bucephalus’s physical appearance is described in considerable detail in various sources: he was large, had a prominent head, and was either black or dark bay in color. In certain texts, there are references to specific markings (such as a white star on the forehead) and the rare occurrence of blue eyes in a horse. His precise breed remains unknown; however, some historians suggest that he might have been an Akhal-Teke with potential crossbreeding. It's established that the horse hailed from the plains of Thessaly, a region in the northern Balkan Peninsula with a long-standing reputation for horse breeding.
The Greek historian Arrian (first–second century CE) writes that the horse of the Macedonian king lived an impressive thirty years. Despite serving his master for many years, sources notably highlight two episodes from his long life: his initial meeting with his future owner and the circumstances surrounding his demise.
There are at least two versions of Bucephalus’s origins. Perhaps the best-known story is attributed to the ancient Greek historian Plutarch (first–second century CE). In Parallel Lives, the author recounts that Bucephalus was presented to Alexander's father, Philip II, by a Thessalian merchant named Philonicus. The historian mentions that the merchant demanded an exorbitant sum of 13 talents (over 300 kilograms of silver!) for the horse. However, the Macedonian king was in no rush to make the purchase: the animal was exceedingly spirited and consistently threw off anyone who attempted to tame it.
It was during that time, as recounted by Plutarch, that the first encounter between the future conqueror and Bucephalus unfolded. The twelve-year-old heir to the throne volunteered to tame the spirited creature. ‘Alexander immediately rushed to the magnificent horse, grabbed its reins, and turned its face toward the sun: evidently, he noticed that the horse was spooked by the wavering shadow ahead. Alexander ran alongside the horse for a while, soothing it with his touch. Once he was certain that Bucephalus had calmed down and was breathing steadily, Alexander cast off his cloak and, with a light leap, mounted the horse…’ Plutarch goes on to describe the enthusiastic reaction of the Macedonian crowd and quotes the prophetic words of Philip II: ‘Seek, my son, a kingdom worthy of yourself, for Macedonia is too small for you!’
A somewhat different version of this well-known tale is presented in the so-called Alexander Romance. This source has been rewritten multiple times, and the original text (dating from the second to third century BCE) has not survived. The History gives Bucephalus Macedonian origins and endows him with fantastical qualities, comparing him to the mythical Pegasus. The text also includes a prophecy from the Delphic Oracle that promises great fame and power over the world to the one who saddles the horse marked with the head of a bull.
In either version of the legend, we see that Bucephalus the horse seems to legitimize the future world ruler's authority. The taming of the horse is positioned as a unique test, an initiation ritual. It's no wonder that in certain narratives a closer bond between Alexander and his faithful companion is apparent. In some versions of the History of Alexander the Great, the king and his horse are referred to as peers, and sometimes their deaths are even synchronized.
There is no consensus among ancient and later authors in describing the horse's death. For instance, one account suggests that Bucephalus died of natural causes after reaching the age of thirty. However, a much more widespread account, proposed by Arrian and referencing Alexander's companion Onesicritus, asserts that Bucephalus met his end from wounds sustained in battle against King Porus at the Hydaspes River during the conqueror's Indian campaign in 326 BCE.
Another prevalent narrative is that Alexander supposedly honored the memory of his ‘companion’ by founding an entire city, Alexandria Bucephalous, at the place of Bucephalus's death. Unfortunately, pinpointing the exact location of this ancient city is nearly impossible as nothing has survived to this day. Some sources mention that the settlement was established on the western bank of the Hydaspes River (the modern-day Jhelum River, a tributary of the Indus in Pakistan). However, due to the multiple shifts in the river's course and the near absence of archaeological materials, these testimonies are unlikely to guide researchers to the settlement's traces.
Alexander's Indian campaign marked the conclusion of his grand Eastern expedition. The death of his loyal horse chronologically coincides with his final conquests and is even presented by certain ancient authors as one of the reasons for the halt of the Macedonian expansion in the East. Serious scholars would likely disagree with their ancient counterparts, but it's undeniable that the images of Alexander the Great and his horse Bucephalus go hand in hand in the narrative of the Eastern campaign. Bucephalus himself is, without a doubt, one of the most recognizable horses in world history.
Alexander taming Bucephalus. The fresco. Villa Farnesina. Rome. 1477-1549/Alamy
What to read
1. Plutarch. Parallel Lives.St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1994. Vol. 2.
2. Arrian. The Campaigns of Alexander. Moscow: Mif, 1993.
3. Rufus, K.K. The History of Alexander the Great with appendices of Diodorus, Justin, and
4. Plutarch on Alexander. Moscow: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1993.
5. Hall, J. Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art. Moscow: Kron-press, 1996.