TURKISH SULTAN'S EUNUCHS

"The scrotum was cut, from which the testicles were extracted, and then a special board was placed under the genital organ, which was removed at the root." Such a description of the procedure has reached us from the 10th century. Some sources report that after the removal of the genitals, a bamboo stick was inserted into the urethra to prevent closure, and the boys were buried up to their necks in the sand under the bright sun. In 700 years, the procedure hardly changed. During this time, neither antibiotics nor effective antiseptics appeared, so "more slaves died than survived after this procedure." One can only imagine the horror experienced by these unfortunate teenagers. However, the suffering did not end there.

A boy subjected to castration before the onset of puberty was doomed to endure various medical complications throughout his life: fragile bones, susceptibility to various infections of the urogenital system, obesity, or, conversely, severe thinness, irregular body proportions (overly long arms, a small head), and perhaps the most harmless - the absence of a beard.

These trials were a standard beginning to the career of one of the most influential officials in the Ottoman Empire—the head of the black eunuchs, who guarded the sultan's harem.

The history of male castration stretches back through the centuries, and this practice has always had a specific social context—whether it was a punishment for sexual violence or a step on the path to spiritual enlightenment. However, eunuchs became integral parts of the courts of monarchs in different countries and eras. Deprived of the ability to find happiness in women, they devoted themselves entirely to another passion—power.

Castrated men were not perceived as competitors by the monarch. Thus, in the Chinese, Ottoman, and Byzantine Empires, when entrusted by the ruler, eunuchs became the most influential figures in the state. This portrayal of eunuchs was vividly reflected in "Game of Thrones," and the creators of "Magnificent Century" also explored the role of eunuchs.

Throughout history, eunuchs appeared in various spheres of life. In Christianity, where celibacy was one of the pillars of monastic life, self-castration was occasionally practiced to combat worldly temptations. Moreover, eunuchs, lacking a source of testosterone during adolescence, acquired an unreachable vocal range for adult men and, with specific training, could sing exceptionally well. Hence, in the medieval church choir, eunuchs were not uncommon. Starting from the 17th century, youthful sopranos transformed eunuchs into full-fledged stars of Italian opera. Composers wrote specific parts for them. However, later on, castration for the sake of improving vocal qualities was prohibited in European countries.

To comprehend why eunuchs gained significant political importance in the Ottoman Empire, we need to delve into the structure of Topkapi Palace (also known as the Seraglio). Starting from 1460, merely seven years after the fall of Constantinople, Topkapi became the primary residence of the sultan, enduring until the mid-19th century. From this time onward, the figure of the Ottoman ruler was not only separated from ordinary subjects but also from high-ranking officials. As time passed, various measures were introduced to ensure that almost no one could see the sultan, including the servants of his court, with the exception of Friday prayers.

Topkapi is divided into four courtyards. The first two were considered public areas. The first housed a park and the Byzantine Church of Saint Irene, which then served as an arsenal; the second contained the divan, the state council. The emperor's chambers, the Enderun, were located in the third courtyard. Also found there were the school for pages, the throne room, the library, the treasury, a closed building for heirs (shehzade), and some other structures. Each courtyard was separated from the others by gates. For instance, the gates to the third courtyard were quite notably named the Gates of Happiness. Real power was exercised by those allowed to pass through these gates—namely, the white and black eunuchs.

There is a legend that Sultan Mehmed II, upon witnessing a stallion mating with a mare, ordered full castration for eunuchs, meaning the removal of the penis and testicles. This ensured that the sultan's eunuchs couldn't engage in romances with odalisques. Another precautionary measure was the use of black eunuchs. If an improperly castrated black eunuch managed to have a relationship with a concubine, any resulting offspring would immediately reveal both parties. However, the aim was not only to prevent eunuchs from having relationships with concubines but also to deprive the caretakers of the harem of the ability to leave descendants who could later establish their own aristocratic clan.

Black eunuchs were typically slaves from Africa, often from Ethiopia. White eunuchs were either captives or slaves taken from the Balkan Peninsula or the Caucasus. Sometimes, parents voluntarily offered their children to the sultan, hoping for a better future and sparing themselves from having an extra hungry mouth to feed. There were even instances where captives from Western European countries ended up as the sultan's slaves.

White and black eunuchs had different sets of duties. The former guarded the Enderun, conveyed the sultan's messages to other officials, and were responsible for the palace school for pages, located in the third courtyard. Black eunuchs guarded the sultan's harem and served as mediators between the harem residents and the outside world of Topkapi. Initially, the head of the white eunuchs, the kapi aga, wielded significant power. However, by the late 17th century, the situation changed, and supremacy shifted into the hands of the black eunuchs and their leader, the kizlar aga.

For young eunuchs who survived castration, the first step was to undergo comprehensive training. Subsequently, a eunuch would assume the role of a regular guard at the harem gates, with no access granted inside. Gradually, they could progress to the position of the head of the guards. After reaching this stage, a eunuch gained access to the harem and personal interaction with the sultan. The most trusted eunuchs were assigned to the sultan's wives, princes, the sultan himself, and the imams who led Friday prayers. Before becoming the kizlar aga, one had to serve as the treasurer of the harem for some time.

Climbing to the top of the career ladder was possible not only through professional qualities. Life at the sultan's court was full of bloody intrigues. The kizlar aga and kapi aga competed for influence in the Enderun. The sultan's concubines, his wife, and his mother fought for influence over the sultan. The Janissary corps aimed to instigate palace coups or, at the very least, rebellions to secure privileges. The grand vizier tried to distribute significant positions to his clients. The sultan's sons fought for the throne among themselves and against the sultan. Losing in this daily struggle often meant inevitable demise.

The best way for a kizlar agato rise was to gain the support of the valide-sultan, the mother of the ruling sultan and the primary woman in the harem. In the 16th-17th centuries, the figure of the valide-sultan became so influential that this period was called the "female sultanate," implying that women were the ones truly in charge. Here, the role of the kizlar aga, a loyal assistant to the valide-sultan, was crucial. However, the chief eunuch could also betray the valide, switching sides to support her rivals. In 1651, kizlar aga Suleiman orchestrated the murder of the powerful valide Kosem Sultan and helped her rival Turhan take her place. At night, Suleiman and his subordinate eunuchs entered the harem, found Kosem in a wardrobe, and strangled her with a rope.

High-ranking eunuchs also had to deal with their own adversaries. For instance, with the sultan's vizier, who might be displeased with the influence of eunuchs on the affairs of the empire. Once, Suleiman beat the grand vizier, took the state seal from him, and gave the position to his friend.

The principal eunuchs were granted spacious private quarters situated near the harem gates while their subordinates resided collectively in cramped, often modest, three-story barracks.

The protection of the harem involved more than merely preventing sexual encounters within the palace with odalisques.i An odalisque ( Ottoman Turkish: اوطه‌لق, Turkish: odalık) was a chambermaid or a female attendant in a Turkish seraglio, particularly the court ladies in the household of the Ottoman sultan. Eunuchs had a multifaceted role, including the education of concubines chosen by the sultan (often decided by the valid-sultan on his behalf). They accompanied the ladies to the sultan's chambers, alerted the harem about the ruler's visits, and sometimes had to administer punishment, with drowning in the Bosphorus being a popular method, the Kizlyar-aga personally sewed the bags shut for the errant ladies. Eunuchs also oversaw the education of the princes (shehzade) and the pages of the sultan.

Eunuchs also supervised the education of princes (shehzade) and palace pages. The kizlar aga had the exclusive authority to convey messages from the vizier to the sultan and vice versa, while also regulating the information flow into and out of the harem. During moments of dynastic disputes, the kizlar aga often played a pivotal role in determining the rightful heir to the throne.

Eunuchs took on the responsibility of organizing numerous festivities, both within and outside the Topkapi Palace. This included overseeing weddings, funerals, and circumcision ceremonies for the sultan's heirs (shehzade). Eunuchs accepted gifts from guests, passing them on to the sultan or his harem. A customary ceremony involved the eunuch dressing an honored guest in clothing gifted by the sultan, often made of sable fur. These celebrations extended beyond the palace, with markets, festivals, and occasional feasts organized for the city's residents, all managed by the eunuchs.

Equally vital was their role in entertaining the harem. The kizlar aga arranged for musicians, poets, food, and drinks to ensure the odalisques remained engaged. Notably, the harem residents enjoyed opulent celebrations held in honor of tulip blossoms, a trend that gained popularity in the early 18th century.

The kizlar aga played a crucial role as a religious figure. He supervised the financing of Mecca and Medina, the primary holy sites of Islam, and organized the annual transmission of gifts (waqfs) to support these sanctuaries. In addition to overseeing Mecca and Medina, the chief eunuch managed mosques and madrasas in other cities, ensuring the construction and maintenance of these establishments. He also monitored the infrastructure along pilgrimage routes, including hotels, roads, and coffee shops. The kizlar aga could even be entrusted with the administration of an entire city. There is a documented case where a Greek concubine named Vasilika placed Athens (a city "gifted" to her by the sultan) under the supervision of the chief eunuch.

The management of charity, essentially capital, formed the cornerstone of financial prosperity for any kizlar aga. The construction of a mosque in a village immediately led to the development of trade stalls, markets, and bathhouses, generating substantial income. The waqf itself could be a commercial venture. As a gift, the kizlar aga might build an entire complex, including a mill, bakery, coffee shop, stable, numerous warehouses, and a hotel. High-ranking eunuchs thus invested in fabric production, coffee trade, and spice commerce.

Upon retirement, eunuchs of various ranks (especially the black eunuchs) often headed to Cairo, where they received a modest allowance, a small sum of money, and a regular ration of wheat or barley. Of course, eunuchs of higher ranks, thanks to their commercial activities, were much better off. They had their own servants, slaves, security, and even their small private armies. In Cairo, there were so many eunuchs that a kind of "eunuch alley" and eventually a whole district emerged. It's worth noting that eunuch retirement wasn't your average quiet stay in an elderly care home. These "pensioners" formed a complete community and actively participated in local social life. If anyone, even the authorities themselves, threatened their interests, eunuchs, with their numerous guards, could engage in conflicts with regular troops or, conversely, assist in suppressing a rebellion.

The peak of eunuch power endured from the 16th to the first half of the 18th century. In the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire ushered in the Tanzimat era: reforms aimed at modernizing the country. The management of waqfs was transferred to a specialized ministry, signaling the end of eunuch authority. The sultan relegated them to a purely ceremonial role, and in 1908, during the revolution, the institution of eunuchs ceased to exist. When the Turkish Republic emerged, the sultan's eunuchs found themselves in a precarious position. They often faced unemployment due to a lack of marketable skills, sometimes due to ties with monarchical Turkey, and occasionally because of racial prejudices. However, Kemal Atatürk hired one African eunuch to educate his adopted daughters. The complete institution of eunuchs lingered the longest in Saudi Arabia until slavery was banned in 1962. There, eunuchs guarded the tomb of the Prophet Muhammad. Some of them are still alive to this day.