Production of papyrus. Illustration. 1900 / Photo by Ann Ronan Pictures/Print Collector/Getty Images
Answered by Pliny the Elder (22–79 CE), who was a Roman writer and the author of Naturalis Historia, the largest encyclopedia of the ancient era. Pliny provided one of the few ancient descriptions of the papyrus production process in his encyclopedia. In Ancient Rome, papyrus was the primary writing material, so Pliny likely observed the process of creating paper from papyrus. The following is a paraphrased rendition of Pliny's text, taking into account the scientific commentary of translators.
Where can Papyrus be Found?
Papyrus can be located in the marshes of the Delta or in the tranquil waters of the Nile as long as the water's depth remains under two cubits. It also thrives in Syria, particularly around lakes where a fragrant reed known as "myrtle grass" can be found. Notably, papyrus has even been discovered on the banks of the Euphrates near Babylon.
What does Papyrus Look Like?
The papyrus root possesses the thickness of a hand and extends diagonally into the earth. Its stem is three-sided, not exceeding ten cubits in length. It tapers towards the tip and is crowned with a tuft resembling a tassel.i
What Essential Materials are Required?
Nile water proves essential due to its sediment content, which enhances adhesive properties. Necessary tools include sharp implements, a wooden board, a press, and a hammer, preferably crafted from an elephant tusk or shell. Coarse flour and a touch of vinegar are required to create glue. For higher-quality glue, consider substituting flour and vinegar with sour bread dough.
Other Things You Should Know
Begin by determining the intended type of paper. Papyrus paper quality exhibits variation. Factors for evaluation encompass thinness, density, gloss, lightness, and sheet size. The heart of the papyrus stem holds the utmost value.
What are the Kinds of Paper?
- Charta Hieratica was employed for crafting particularly valuable books, especially religious ones, which led to its name. It was extracted from the very core of the papyrus stem. This type was the thinnest and lightest, designed for writing on only one side. Later, it was renamed "Augustan charta" in honor of the first Roman emperor, with the term "hieratic" transferred to the third sort.i
Roman Emperor Augustus (27 BCE–14 CE).
- Charta Liviana, known as the "Livian charta," took its name from Livia, Augustus's spouse. Its quality matched that of Augustan charta.
- Charta Claudiana, "Claudian charta," was created by alternating layers of Augustan and Livian charta.
- Charta Phanniana, the "Phannian charta," was approximately 19 cm wide and was produced in Phannias's workshop, as suggested by Pliny's account.
- Charta Amphitheatrica, around 17 cm wide, derived its name from its production site in Alexandria.
- Charta Saitica, of relatively lower quality, was produced near the Egyptian city of Sais.
- Charta Theneotica, even lower in quality, was also named based on its production site, as indicated in Pliny's text.
- Charta Corneliana's quality is challenging to determine. It was named after Cornelius Gallus, the prefect of Egypt appointed by Augustus.
- Charta Emporica, known as the "merchant's charta," represented the lowest grade and was primarily used for wrapping purposes.
The Library of Alexandria. Modern drawing. From open access
May we Commence the Paper-Making Process Now?
Certainly. Regardless of the specific type of paper being crafted, the procedure remains consistent throughout.
To initiate, the adhesive must be prepared. This adhesive should be readied precisely one day prior to its application. It consists of coarse flour, which is combined with boiling water and a small addition of vinegar. However, the most superior adhesive is produced as follows: fermented bread dough is blended with boiling water and then strained through a sieve. This variety of adhesive is soft and yields the fewest clumps.
On the subsequent day, take a board and moisten it with water from the Nile. Acquire the stem of the papyrus and slice it into strips with a keen edge. First, lay down the lower strip (layer) along the full length of the prospective papyrus sheet; trim the projecting ends. Subsequently, place a strip perpendicular to it, creating a lattice pattern. Position the paper beneath a press. Subsequently, tap it with a hammer and apply adhesive, causing the paper sheet to crinkle. Following this, tap it again with a hammer.
The resulting sheets are dried under the sun's rays. Adequate drying is crucial to prevent defects from becoming evident on the paper. Moisture spots or writing marks will otherwise begin to blur. Upon the sheets' thorough drying, the rough texture can be smoothed out using an elephant tusk or a shell. However, polished paper absorbs ink to a lesser degree, making the writing less enduring.
How is a Scroll Crafted?
The process is straightforward. You must glue the acquired sheets together. It's crucial that these sheets bond well with their counterparts. As you near the end of the scroll, the quality of the sheets tends to decrease.
How Long Can Scrolls be Preserved for?
Written documents can endure for a considerable period. I myself have witnessed the handwritten manuscripts of the celebrated poet and citizen Pomponius Secundus, dating back nearly two hundred years. They included the works of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. We frequently encounter manuscripts of Cicero, as well as those of the revered Augustus and Vergil. For example, Cassius Hemina, an ancient annalist, recounts in his fourth book the tale of a scribe named Gnaeus Terentius. While tilling his field on the Janiculum, he stumbled upon a tomb containing the remains of Rome's once-reigning king, Numa. Among the contents of the tomb were his books. This discovery occurred during the consulship of Publius Cornelius Lentulus, son of Lucius, Cethegus, and Marcus Bebius, son of Quintus, Tamphilus—a span of 535 years from Numa's rule. These books were crafted from papyrus, and even more astonishingly, they were preserved after being buried in the ground.
What Other Uses Does Papyrus Have?
A multitude of applications exist. People utilize its roots like wood, not just for igniting fires but also for crafting essential household items. From the papyrus itself, they fashion boats, and from its bark, they create sails, coverings, clothing, baskets, and ropes. Additionally, they chew it in its raw and cooked states, ingesting only its juice.
Farming in Ancient Egypt. A papyrus from the "Book of the Dead". 11th-10th century BC / Photo by Werner Forman/Universal Images Group/Getty Images
References
1. Borukhovich, V. G. In the World of Ancient Scrolls. Saratov, 1976.
2. Antonets, E. V., Solopov, A. I. "Principatus medio (Plin. NH. XIII.74). On the Interpretation Problem of Pliny the Elder's Description of Papyrus Production." Vestnik drevnei istorii, 2007, No. 1, pp. 9–19.
3. Doyle, Leo. The Past Mastered. The Search for Monumental Writing / Translated by E. A. Markova; Edited and introduced by Ya. V. Vasilykova. Moscow: Nauka, Gl. red. vost. lit., 1980.
4. Lucas, A. Materials and Craft Productions in Ancient Egypt / Translated by B. N. Savchenko; General editor and introductory article by Prof. V. I. Avdiev. Moscow: Foreign Literature Publishing House, 1958.
5. Murphy, T. Pliny the Elder’s Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
6. The Oxford Handbook of Papyrology / Edited by R. Bagnall. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. 712 p.