QIN SHI HUANG

Qin Shi Huang is not a name but a title meaning ‘the First Sacred Emperor of Qin’. After unifying the country in 221 BCE, he adopted this title as a means of referencing the divine rulers of Chinese mythology and asserting the emperor’s absolute authority.

His real name was Ying Zheng. The name ‘Zheng’ means ‘first’, and it was given to him because he was born in the first month of the year 259 BCE. Ying was his family name, essentially his surname. Ying Zheng’s childhood unfolded during the Warring States periodiThe Warring States period was a time in Chinese history, from the fifth century BCE to 221 BCE, when the country was divided into seven rival statesin the state of Qin. His paternal grandfather was a ‘Wang’i‘Wang’ is the Chinese word for ‘ruler’, and it denotes the ruler of a kingdom in the Chinese hierarchy, but his grandmother was merely a low-ranking concubine, which left Ying Zheng with virtually no prospects of ever ascending the throne. However, his father, Ying Yiren, found an unexpected benefactor in the wealthy merchant Lü Buwei, who orchestrated events such that Ying Yiren would eventually become the heir to the aging king. Providing financial support, arranging crucial alliances, and reportedly eliminating inconvenient rivals, Lü Buwei even managed to have the heir’s chief concubine adopt Ying Yiren as her own son. This maneuver paved the way for Ying Yiren to ascend the throne, setting the stage for Ying Zheng’s eventual rise to power.

Of course, Lü Buwei did not take an interest in Ying Yiren’s fate without reason. By mutual agreement, Ying Yiren promised to give Lü Buwei a significant share in the kingdom if he succeeded. There were even scandalous rumors that Ying Yiren’s son by Concubine Zhao—later Qin Shi Huang—was actually fathered by Lü Buwei. It was believed that Zhao was already pregnant when she met Ying Yiren. These rumors were spread far and wide by Confucian followers, who clashed with Qin Shi Huang after he ascended the throne, but there is no documentary evidence to support this claim.

Ying Yiren ascended the throne in 250 BCE, taking the name King Zhuangxiang. Lü Buwei was appointed prime minister and granted 100 estates as his personal fiefdom, and Ying Zheng was appointed crown prince. Under his father’s rule, the Qin kingdom expanded significantly, so that Ying Zheng inherited the throne in 247 BCE at the age of thirteen. Backed by the powerful Qin army, considered the most formidable force of its time, he continued the gradual conquest of neighboring states. In 221 BCE, he succeeded in conquering all six rival states—Han, Zhao, Yan, Wei, Chu, and Qi—unifying China under his rule. And thus began the history of the Qin Empire.

After ascending the throne as a child in 247 BCE, Qin Shi Huang initially ruled with the help of the regent Lü Buwei (who eventually fell out of favor) and later Prime Minister Li Si (who was often criticized for his excessive authority). However, following the unification of China in 221 BCE, the nearly forty-year-old Qin Shi Huang began implementing a more independent political agenda.

To govern a unified China effectively and minimize the threat of uprisings, Qin Shi Huang initiated a series of reforms to consolidate absolute power. He abolished the hereditary system used to appoint officials, instead selecting them on merit and capability. The Qin Empire was reorganized into a centralized system with thirty-six military districts and was further divided into regions, counties, and rural communes of 100 families each. This restructuring erased the old boundaries of the warring states, reducing the likelihood of conspiracies and rebellions.

Qin Shi Huang also standardized measurements, weights, and the written script. The new characters were legible and easily understood by people across the empire. Even the axle width of carts and wagons was standardized, enabling seamless travel on any road in China. A unified currency, the ban liang coin, previously used in the state of Qin, became the first national currency in Chinese history. These reforms not only improved administrative efficiency but also greatly facilitated transportation and trade within the empire.

The capital of China was Xianyang, located in the heart of the Qin Empire, where it had served as the capital since 350 BCE. After the fall of the Qin dynasty, however, the capital would be relocated once again. By the emperor’s decree, officials from all the conquered states moved to this city, significantly simplifying control over them. To embellish the capital, Qin Shi Huang repurposed weapons confiscated from the warriors of the defeated states, melting them down to create bells and statues. Another aspect of Qin Shi Huang’s reign was the widespread persecution of dissenters. It is believed that Qin Shi Huang launched a large-scale book-burning campaign at the behest of his prime minister Li Si, and only texts on agriculture, medicine, and alchemy were spared. Initiated in 212 BCE, this campaign became known in Chinese historiography as the first of many library disastersiLibrary disasters in Chinese historiography refer to events that led to significant losses in the literary tradition. Qin Shi Huang sought to erase his subjects' memory of the events from the Warring States period.

During Qin Shi Huang’s time as emperor, followers of Confucius, the ancient Chinese philosopher from the sixth century BCE, faced severe persecution. Confucianism’s main rival in Chinese philosophy was Legalism, which Qin Shi Huang adhered to. Consequently, all philosophical schools except Legalism were eventually banned, and Confucian texts were burned. According to legend, more than 460 Confucian scholars were buried alive by order of the emperor. A common trope in Chinese historiography claims that Qin Shi Huang targeted Confucians because they rejected the concept of immortality, an idea he was famously obsessed with.

That Qin Shi Huang was willing to try anything to escape his mortality is known (as with much of the information about his life) thanks to the writings of the Chinese historian Sima Qian, who lived during the Han dynasty at the turn of the third and second centuries BCE. He wrote the extensive Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), in which he notes that Qin Shi Huang’s journeys across the country were primarily aimed at meeting sorcerers and seeking out elixirs of immortality.

For a long time, these accounts were regarded as legend, but it now seems that Qin Shi Huang was genuinely obsessed with the idea of eternal life. Recently, Chinese researchers uncovered and deciphered clay strips hidden inside an abandoned well near the Hunan province. Dated to the reign of the first Qin emperor, forty-eight of these strips contain an imperial decree demanding reports from various provinces on their efforts to find the elixir of immortality. The replies consisted largely of ‘awkward’ excuses from local officials, but the fact remains: Qin Shi Huang’s obsession has been confirmed through documented evidence.iMore information on this can be found at the Smithsonian Magazine

It was during one such journey across the country in search of immortality that Qin Shi Huang died. It is believed that in his quest for eternal life, he ingested mercury, gradually poisoning his body.

During Qin Shi Huang’s reign, the extensive persecution of dissenters led to a large number of prisoners, whose labor was forcibly employed for massive construction projects.

One of the most notable projects was the construction of the unified Great Wall of China. This became the sole fortification on Chinese territory as all other walls were demolished to weaken the annexed kingdoms. Additionally, a thirty-six-kilometer-long canal was built, connecting vast regions of southern China.

Since the emperor was fond of traveling across the country to inspect his domains and maintain control over his subjects, a vast road network spanning an incredible 7,000 kilometers was developed in China. These three-lane roads stretched across the empire, with the middle lane reserved exclusively for the emperor's carriage. Building such infrastructure in China’s challenging terrain was immensely difficult, but as a ruler with absolute power, Qin Shi Huang could mobilize forced labor on an unprecedented scale.

Some construction projects were not only intended to unify the country but also to glorify the emperor's greatness. For example, in Sanyang, Qin Shi Huang ordered the construction of the Epang Palace, said to be named after his favorite concubine. The palace has not survived to the present day. According to legend, only a massive platform remained of the palace, with everything else being destroyed in a fire during internal wars. This platform, covering an area of at least 0.45 square kilometers, was indeed discovered by archeologists and recognized by UNESCO experts in 1991 as the largest in the world. However, excavations conducted in the early 2000s revealed no tracesiFor more information, see S.A. Komissarov and A.I. Soloviev’s 2019 paper titled ‘The Palace that Could Be the Biggest in the World’ (in Russian)of burning on the platform. The prevailing theory among archeologists is now that the palace was never destroyed—it simply was never built. Nevertheless, in Chinese legends, it is described as the most magnificent palace ever created by humankind. In Sanyang, Qin Shi Huang also constructed other luxurious palaces for his children, concubines, and relatives.

Another of Qin Shi Huang’s ‘mega-projects’ was his own tomb. Construction of the massive mausoleum began when the emperor was only thirteen years old and continued for thirty-eight years, and approximately 700,000 people were conscripted to work on it. Qin Shi Huang was to be accompanied into the afterlife by about 8,000 terracotta warriors, including generals and ordinary soldiers. More recently, excavations at the mausoleum have also uncovered massive bronze chariots along with statues of acrobats and musicians. Each of these figures is a true work of art, individually handcrafted using various techniques. What stands out is the remarkable level of detail—every statue has unique features, even down to distinct facial expressions. Historian Sima Qian recorded that about fifty of the emperor's concubines and a vast number of treasures were buried with him. These were meant to accompany Qin Shi Huang on his final journey, allowing him to enjoy the same grandeur in the afterlife.

The Terracotta Army was discovered by Chinese farmers in 1974 while digging a well, and since then, it has been extensively studied by archeologists. However, research on the complex remains limited, with only part of the mausoleum being excavated so far. Qin Shi Huang’s actual tomb has never been opened. It is believed that opening it could be dangerous due to the risk of structural damage. Additionally, Chinese historiography has preserved legends of numerous traps inside the tomb, including mines and mercury devices, designed to kill anyone who dares disturb the first Qin emperor’s rest. While these stories might be myths, archeological studies have confirmed that levels of mercury around the necropolis are significantly higher than normal.

Qin Shi Huang hoped that the dynasty he founded would rule China forever—indeed, for at least the next 10,000 generations. However, his predictions did not come true: the Qin remained in power for only fifteen years. Apart from Qin Shi Huang himself, who ruled unified China from 221 BCE until his death in 210 BCE, only two other members of the Qin family ascended the throne. The first was Qin Shi Huang's younger son, who came to the throne under the name of Qin Er Shi (literally ‘Second Emperor’) after a conspiracy against his older brother. But as a result of court intrigues, he was forced to die by suicide in 207 BCE. Following his death, internal conflict erupted within the Qin Empire, resulting in their loss of control over the country, which then transitioned to the Han dynasty. The Qin briefly regained control for a short period in 206 BCE, when the throne was taken by Zhin, the last ruler of the Qin Empire and the grandson of Qin Shi Huang's eldest son, Fu Su. However, he ruled for only a few months as a Wang and not as an emperor. A large-scale rebellion against the Qin rule broke out in the country, and Zhin was executed in a conspiracy, marking the end of the Qin dynasty.

Following this, several years of turmoil followed in Chinese history as the Chu and Han empires fought for control of the country. In 202 BCE, the Han Empire emerged victorious and would go on to rule China for over 400 years.

The Qin dynasty, it must be said, made its mark on Chinese history, if only because, as is believed since ancient times, the very name of China in some languages is derived from the Qin dynasty, for example, ‘China’ in English or ‘Chine’ in French.